JLPT N2 — Grammar (~200+ patterns)

Complete N2 grammar reference: 200+ formal and written patterns with structures, nuance comparisons, and example sentences in formal register.

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N2 grammar is characterized by formal and written register patterns. Unlike N3 and N4 grammar that primarily reflects conversational Japanese, N2 patterns come from newspapers, academic writing, business communication, and broadcast speech. Many patterns have similar meanings — distinguishing them by nuance and register is a core N2 exam skill.

Patterns are organized thematically. Each entry shows: structure → meaning → nuance notes → example sentences.

1. Formal Conjunctions and Connectives

These patterns are the backbone of formal written Japanese. They connect clauses in ways that simple て-form or から connections cannot.

1.1 〜に従い / 〜に従って

Structure: Noun + に従い / に従って | V-dictionary + に従って
Meaning: In accordance with; following; as ~ progresses
Register: Formal written and spoken

Nuance:

  • When used with a process/change noun (時間, 変化, 成長), it means "as X changes, Y changes accordingly."
  • When used with rules/instructions, it means "in accordance with X."
  • 〜に従い is more formal (used in written documents); 〜に従って is usable in speech.

Examples:

  1. 規則に従って行動してください。
    Kisoku ni shitagatte koudou shite kudasai.
    Please act in accordance with the rules.

  2. 時代の変化に従い、新しい政策が必要になった。
    Jidai no henka ni shitagai, atarashii seisaku ga hitsuyou ni natta.
    As the times changed, new policies became necessary.

  3. 手続きに従って申請書を提出した。
    Tetsuzuki ni shitagatte shinsetsusho wo teishutsu shita.
    I submitted the application form following the procedure.

Contrast with 〜に沿って: 〜に従って implies following rules/authority; 〜に沿って implies moving along a path/guideline without the authority connotation.

1.2 〜に基づいて / 〜に基づく

Structure: Noun + に基づいて (predicate position) / に基づく + Noun (attributive)
Meaning: Based on; on the basis of; in accordance with
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Implies a solid, formal foundation — used for decisions, policies, research.
  • 〜をもとに is the semi-formal equivalent; 〜に基づいて is more formal and appears in legal/academic contexts.
  • The attributive form 〜に基づく precedes nouns directly: データに基づく分析 (analysis based on data).

Examples:

  1. 科学的根拠に基づいて、この方針が決定された。
    Kagaku-teki konkyo ni motozuite, kono houshin ga kettei sareta.
    This policy was decided based on scientific grounds.

  2. 法律に基づく処分が下された。
    Houritsu ni motozuku shobun ga kudasa reta.
    A disposition based on the law was issued.

  3. データに基づいた結論を出すべきだ。
    Dēta ni motozuita ketsuron wo dasu beki da.
    We should draw conclusions based on data.

1.3 〜をもとに / 〜をもとにして

Structure: Noun + をもとに(して)
Meaning: Based on; using ~ as a foundation; from ~
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • Similar to 〜に基づいて, but slightly less formal; more common in everyday written Japanese.
  • Often used for creative works: 実話をもとにした映画 (a film based on a true story).
  • 〜に基づいて is used for rules, standards, and research. 〜をもとに is used for source material, ideas, and inspiration.

Examples:

  1. この小説は実際の事件をもとにして書かれた。
    Kono shousetsu wa jissai no jiken wo moto ni shite kakareta.
    This novel was written based on real events.

  2. アンケート結果をもとに改善策を検討する。
    Ankēto kekka wo moto ni kaizen-saku wo kentou suru.
    We will examine improvement measures based on survey results.

  3. 既存の研究をもとに新しい理論を展開した。
    Kison no kenkyuu wo moto ni atarashii riron wo tenkai shita.
    We developed a new theory based on existing research.

1.4 〜に沿って / 〜に沿った

Structure: Noun + に沿って (predicate) / に沿った + Noun (attributive)
Meaning: Along; in line with; following (a path, plan, policy)
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Conveys movement "along" a path, plan, or policy — like walking along a river.
  • Used for plans, schedules, guidelines, roads, rivers.
  • Does NOT carry the "authority" meaning of 〜に従って. You follow a plan (沿って), you obey a rule (従って).

Examples:

  1. 計画に沿って作業を進めてください。
    Keikaku ni sotte sagyou wo susumete kudasai.
    Please advance the work in line with the plan.

  2. 川に沿って歩いていくと、古い橋が見えた。
    Kawa ni sotte aruite iku to, furui hashi ga mieta.
    Walking along the river, I saw an old bridge.

  3. 方針に沿った対応が求められている。
    Houshin ni sotta taiou ga motomerarete iru.
    A response in line with the policy is required.

1.5 〜をめぐって / 〜をめぐる

Structure: Noun + をめぐって (predicate) / をめぐる + Noun (attributive)
Meaning: Surrounding; concerning; over (a contested or debated matter)
Register: Formal; common in news articles

Nuance:

  • Key nuance: the topic is contested, debated, or disputed. There is multiple-party involvement or conflict.
  • Do NOT use for simple topics. Use for elections, policies, disputes, controversies.
  • 〜に関して means simply "regarding" without the contested nuance.

Examples:

  1. 領土問題をめぐって、両国の関係が悪化した。
    Ryoudo-mondai wo megutte, ryoukoku no kankei ga akka shita.
    Relations between the two countries deteriorated over the territorial dispute.

  2. 新しい法律をめぐる議論が国会で続いている。
    Atarashii houritsu wo meguru giron ga kokkai de tsuzuite iru.
    Debate surrounding the new law continues in the Diet.

  3. 遺産をめぐって兄弟が争った。
    Isan wo megutte kyoudai ga arasotta.
    The siblings fought over the inheritance.

1.6 〜をはじめ / 〜をはじめとして / 〜をはじめとする

Structure: Noun + をはじめ(として) | Noun + をはじめとする + Noun
Meaning: Starting with; beginning with; ~ and other (things of the same category)
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • The noun before をはじめ is the most representative example of a larger group.
  • をはじめとする precedes a noun: 日本をはじめとするアジア諸国 (Asian countries including Japan).
  • をはじめ(として) is used more at the end: 日本をはじめとして、多くの国が参加した.

Examples:

  1. 東京をはじめ、全国の主要都市でイベントが開催された。
    Toukyou wo hajime, zenkoku no shuyou toshi de ibento ga kaisai sareta.
    Events were held in major cities across the country, starting with Tokyo.

  2. 日本をはじめとするアジア諸国が会議に参加した。
    Nihon wo hajime to suru Ajia shokoku ga kaigi ni sanka shita.
    Asian countries including Japan participated in the conference.

  3. 環境問題をはじめとして、様々な課題が存在する。
    Kankyou-mondai wo hajime to shite, samazama na kadai ga sonzai suru.
    Various challenges exist, starting with environmental issues.

1.7 〜のもとで / 〜のもとに

Structure: Noun + のもとで / のもとに
Meaning: Under (conditions, leadership, principles); under the auspices of
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • のもとで: under conditions or circumstances (with a verb of ongoing action).
  • のもとに: slightly more formal; often used in formal declarations or written language.
  • Used with: 指導のもとで (under guidance), 法のもとに (under the law), 条件のもとで (under conditions).

Examples:

  1. 先生の指導のもとで研究を進めている。
    Sensei no shidou no moto de kenkyuu wo susumete iru.
    I am advancing my research under the teacher's guidance.

  2. 法のもとに、すべての人は平等である。
    Hou no moto ni, subete no hito wa byoudou de aru.
    Under the law, all people are equal.

  3. 厳しい条件のもとで実験が行われた。
    Kibishii jouken no moto de jikken ga okonawareta.
    The experiment was conducted under strict conditions.

1.8 〜に伴い / 〜に伴って

Structure: Noun + に伴い(て) / V-dictionary + に伴って
Meaning: Along with; as a result of; accompanying (a change)
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • The key nuance: X causes/accompanies Y — especially when X is a change or event that naturally brings Y.
  • Often used in news and formal reports: 人口増加に伴い、交通渋滞も増えた.
  • 〜に従って can also mean "as X changes, Y follows," but 〜に伴って emphasizes co-occurrence rather than sequential compliance.

Examples:

  1. 経済発展に伴い、生活水準も向上した。
    Keizai-hatten ni tomonai, seikatsu-suijun mo koujou shita.
    Along with economic development, living standards also improved.

  2. 高齢化に伴う問題は、各国が直面している課題だ。
    Koureika ni tomonau mondai wa, kakkoku ga chokumen shite iru kadai da.
    Problems accompanying aging society are challenges faced by each country.

  3. 技術の進歩に伴って、新しいリスクも生まれた。
    Gijutsu no shinpo ni tomonatte, atarashii risuku mo umareta.
    Along with technological progress, new risks also emerged.

1.9 〜にかかわらず / 〜に関わらず

Structure: Noun + にかかわらず | V-plain + かどうかにかかわらず
Meaning: Regardless of; whether or not; irrespective of
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Indicates that the following is true regardless of the preceding condition.
  • Used with opposite pairs: 年齢にかかわらず (regardless of age), 成功か失敗かにかかわらず.
  • Do not confuse with 〜を問わず (also "regardless of") — both are acceptable at N2.

Examples:

  1. 経験の有無にかかわらず、応募できます。
    Keiken no umu ni kakawarazu, oubo dekimasu.
    You can apply regardless of whether you have experience.

  2. 天候にかかわらず、試合は行われる。
    Tenkou ni kakawarazu, shiai wa okonawareru.
    The game will be held regardless of the weather.

  3. 国籍にかかわらず、すべての参加者を歓迎する。
    Kokuseki ni kakawarazu, subete no sankasha wo kangei suru.
    We welcome all participants regardless of nationality.

2. Expressing Stance and Perspective

2.1 〜としては / 〜として

Structure: Noun + としては (my/their standpoint) | Noun + として (in the role of)
Meaning: As (a role/position/standpoint); from the standpoint of
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • として: defines a role or capacity: 教師として (as a teacher).
  • としては: introduces the speaker's/subject's perspective or evaluation: 教師としては、この方法は問題だ (As a teacher, I think this method is problematic).

Examples:

  1. 上司としては、部下の意見を尊重すべきだ。
    Joushi to shite wa, buka no iken wo sonchou subeki da.
    As a superior, one should respect the opinions of subordinates.

  2. 代表者として会議に参加した。
    Daihyousha to shite kaigi ni sanka shita.
    I participated in the meeting as a representative.

  3. 親としては、子供の将来が心配だ。
    Oya to shite wa, kodomo no shourai ga shinpai da.
    As a parent, I'm worried about my child's future.

2.2 〜からすると / 〜からすれば

Structure: Noun + からすると / からすれば
Meaning: Judging from; from the perspective of; considering
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • The speaker evaluates a situation based on evidence or a particular reference point.
  • 〜からみると / 〜からみれば is synonymous but slightly more casual.
  • Used to introduce a conclusion drawn from external evidence.

Examples:

  1. 彼の態度からすると、知っていたに違いない。
    Kare no taido kara suru to, shitte ita ni chigainai.
    Judging from his attitude, he must have known.

  2. 常識からすれば、そんな行動は理解できない。
    Joushiki kara sureba, sonna koudou wa rikai dekinai.
    Judging from common sense, such behavior is incomprehensible.

  3. 専門家の立場からすると、このデータは信頼できない。
    Senmonka no tachiba kara suru to, kono dēta wa shinrai dekinai.
    From a specialist's standpoint, this data cannot be trusted.

2.3 〜にしては

Structure: Noun + にしては | V/adj-plain + にしては
Meaning: For; considering it's; although it's
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Expresses that the result is unexpected relative to the standard set by the condition.
  • Often implies the result is BETTER than expected: 初めてにしてはうまい (Good for a first attempt).
  • Can also imply worse than expected: 大学生にしては語彙が少ない (Limited vocabulary for a college student).

Examples:

  1. 初めてにしてはとても上手だ。
    Hajimete ni shite wa totemo jouzu da.
    You're very good for a first time.

  2. 子供にしては、難しい問題をよく解いた。
    Kodomo ni shite wa, muzukashii mondai wo yoku toita.
    For a child, they solved a difficult problem well.

  3. 日本に10年住んでいるにしては、日本語が不自然だ。
    Nihon ni juu-nen sunde iru ni shite wa, nihongo ga fushizen da.
    For someone who has lived in Japan for 10 years, their Japanese is unnatural.

2.4 〜わりに(は)

Structure: Noun + のわりに(は) | V/adj-plain + わりに(は)
Meaning: Considering; for the amount; in proportion to
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Similar to にしては, but focuses on a disproportionate outcome relative to effort, price, or quantity.
  • Often implies that the result doesn't match the expected proportion.

Examples:

  1. 値段のわりに、品質がよい。
    Nedan no wari ni, hinshitsu ga yoi.
    For the price, the quality is good.

  2. 努力したわりには、成果が少なかった。
    Doryoku shita wari ni wa, seika ga sukunakatta.
    Considering the effort put in, the results were poor.

  3. 暗いわりには、よく見える。
    Kurai wari ni wa, yoku mieru.
    It's surprisingly visible considering how dark it is.

2.5 〜にしても / 〜にしても〜にしても

Structure: Noun/V-plain + にしても | X にしても Y にしても
Meaning: Even if; even for; whether X or Y
Register: Neutral to formal

Examples:

  1. 失敗にしても、いい経験になる。
    Shippai ni shite mo, ii keiken ni naru.
    Even if it's a failure, it will be a good experience.

  2. 賛成にしても反対にしても、意見を言うべきだ。
    Sansei ni shite mo hantai ni shite mo, iken wo iu beki da.
    Whether you agree or disagree, you should express your opinion.

3. Expressing Limits and Conditions

3.1 〜に限り / 〜に限って

Structure: Noun + に限り / に限って
Meaning: Only in the case of; limited to; exclusively for
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • に限り: formal restriction — "only X is applicable." Common in announcements and conditions.
  • に限って: often carries a nuance of irony or complaint — "it's precisely X (of all things) that does Y" when unexpected.

Examples:

  1. 会員に限り、この特典が適用されます。
    Kaiin ni kagiri, kono tokuten ga tekiyou saremasu.
    This benefit applies only to members.

  2. 急いでいるときに限って、電車が遅れる。
    Isoide iru toki ni kagitte, densha ga okureru.
    Trains are always late precisely when I'm in a hurry. (ironic)

  3. 本日に限り、全品20%引きです。
    Honjitsu ni kagiri, zenpin nijuu pasento biki desu.
    Today only, all items are 20% off.

3.2 〜に限らず

Structure: Noun + に限らず
Meaning: Not limited to; not only; beyond just
Register: Formal

Examples:

  1. 日本人に限らず、外国人も参加できる。
    Nihonjin ni kagirazu, gaikokujin mo sanka dekiru.
    Not only Japanese people, foreigners can also participate.

  2. スポーツに限らず、芸術活動も奨励している。
    Supootsu ni kagirazu, geijutsu-katsudou mo shourui shite iru.
    We encourage not just sports but also artistic activities.

3.3 〜を問わず

Structure: Noun + を問わず | X を問わず
Meaning: Regardless of; without regard to; no matter what
Register: Formal; common in official announcements

Nuance:

  • Very close to 〜にかかわらず.
  • 〜を問わず tends to be used with category words (age, nationality, gender, experience).
  • Both are correct N2 patterns; learn the feel of each through example exposure.

Examples:

  1. 年齢を問わず、応募できます。
    Nenrei wo towazu, oubo dekimasu.
    Applications are accepted regardless of age.

  2. 経験の有無を問わず、誰でも参加可能です。
    Keiken no umu wo towazu, dare demo sanka kanou desu.
    Anyone can participate regardless of whether they have experience.

  3. 国籍・性別を問わず採用します。
    Kokuseki/seibetsu wo towazu saiyou shimasu.
    We hire regardless of nationality or gender.

3.4 〜次第で / 〜次第だ

Structure: Noun + 次第で (depending on) | V-masu stem + 次第 (as soon as)
Meaning: Depending on / as soon as (done)
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • 〜次第で: outcome depends on the preceding noun.
  • V-masu + 次第: "as soon as the action is complete" — used in formal situations.

Examples:

  1. 努力次第で、どんな目標も達成できる。
    Doryoku shidai de, donna mokuhyou mo tassei dekiru.
    Any goal can be achieved depending on your effort.

  2. 天気次第でピクニックに行くかどうか決める。
    Tenki shidai de pikunikku ni iku ka dou ka kimeru.
    We'll decide whether to go on a picnic depending on the weather.

  3. 資料ができ次第、お送りします。
    Shiryou ga deki shidai, o-okuri shimasu.
    I will send it to you as soon as the materials are ready.

4. Formal Negation Patterns

These patterns are the most frequently tested grammar distinctions at N2.

4.1 〜というわけではない / 〜というわけでもない

Structure: Clause + というわけではない
Meaning: It's not that; it doesn't mean; it's not the case that
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Corrects a false inference that might be drawn from context.
  • The speaker denies the conclusion that the listener might naturally assume.

Examples:

  1. 忙しいからといって、連絡しないというわけではない。
    Isogashii kara to itte, renraku shinai to iu wake de wa nai.
    Just because I'm busy doesn't mean I won't contact you.

  2. 外国語が得意だというわけではないが、英語は話せる。
    Gaikokugo ga tokui da to iu wake de wa nai ga, eigo wa hanaseru.
    It's not that I'm good at foreign languages, but I can speak English.

4.2 〜とは限らない

Structure: Clause/Noun + とは限らない
Meaning: Not necessarily; it's not always the case that
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • 〜というわけではない denies a specific assumed conclusion.
  • 〜とは限らない denies a general/universal claim — "it's not always true."

Examples:

  1. お金があれば幸せとは限らない。
    Okane ga areba shiawase to wa kagiranai.
    Having money doesn't necessarily mean happiness.

  2. 有名な大学を卒業したからといって、成功するとは限らない。
    Yuumei na daigaku wo sotsugyou shita kara to itte, seikou suru to wa kagiranai.
    Just because you graduated from a famous university doesn't mean you'll succeed.

4.3 〜わけにはいかない

Structure: V-dictionary + わけにはいかない | V-negative + わけにはいかない
Meaning: Cannot afford to; must not; it would be wrong to
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Expresses that doing (or not doing) something would violate social expectation, obligation, or common sense.
  • Strong feeling that the action is socially/morally impermissible.
  • NOT about physical impossibility — about social/moral impossibility.

Examples:

  1. 約束があるから、遅刻するわけにはいかない。
    Yakusoku ga aru kara, chikoku suru wake ni wa ikanai.
    I have a commitment, so I cannot afford to be late.

  2. みんなが残っているのに、一人だけ帰るわけにはいかない。
    Minna ga nokotte iru no ni, hitori dake kaeru wake ni wa ikanai.
    I can't leave alone when everyone else is staying.

4.4 〜ざるを得ない

Structure: V-negative stem (ざる) + を得ない [exception: する → せざるを得ない]
Meaning: Cannot help but; have no choice but to; must
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Expresses reluctant necessity — the speaker has no other option despite wishing otherwise.
  • More formal and literary than 〜しかない or 〜なければならない.
  • The ざる is classical negative.

Examples:

  1. 証拠があるので、認めざるを得ない。
    Shouko ga aru node, mitomezaru wo enai.
    Since there is evidence, I have no choice but to admit it.

  2. 予算が足りないため、計画を中止せざるを得なかった。
    Yosan ga tarinai tame, keikaku wo chuushi sezaru wo enakatta.
    Due to insufficient budget, we had no choice but to halt the plan.

  3. 現状を見ると、改革が必要だと言わざるを得ない。
    Genjou wo miru to, kaikaku ga hitsuyou da to iwazaru wo enai.
    Looking at the current situation, one cannot help but say that reform is necessary.

4.5 〜ないわけにはいかない

Structure: V-negative + わけにはいかない
Meaning: Can't not do; must do; obligated to do
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • The double negative creates a strong obligation: "cannot avoid doing."
  • 〜ざるを得ない and 〜ないわけにはいかない are very close in meaning.
  • 〜ざるを得ない is more formal/literary; 〜ないわけにはいかない sounds more natural in conversation.

Examples:

  1. お世話になったんだから、お礼を言わないわけにはいかない。
    Osewa ni natta n da kara, orei wo iwanai wake ni wa ikanai.
    Since they took care of me, I can't not express my gratitude.

5. Emphasis and Highlighting

5.1 〜こそ / 〜だからこそ

Structure: Noun/Particle + こそ | Clause + だからこそ
Meaning: It is precisely; this very; especially; exactly because
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • こそ is one of the most important emphasis particles in Japanese.
  • Focuses the speaker's emphasis on the preceding word: これこそが問題だ (THIS is precisely the problem).
  • だからこそ: "precisely because" — emphasizes a cause-effect relationship.

Examples:

  1. これこそが真の問題だ。
    Kore koso ga shin no mondai da.
    This is precisely the real problem.

  2. 失敗したからこそ、成長できた。
    Shippai shita kara koso, seichou dekita.
    It is precisely because I failed that I could grow.

  3. 困難だからこそ、挑戦する価値がある。
    Konnan da kara koso, chousen suru kachi ga aru.
    It is precisely because it is difficult that it is worth challenging.

5.2 〜のみならず

Structure: Noun/Clause + のみならず
Meaning: Not only; not merely; in addition to
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • More formal equivalent of 〜だけでなく or 〜ばかりか.
  • Used in written formal texts, official statements, and academic writing.

Examples:

  1. 環境問題は日本のみならず、世界全体の課題だ。
    Kankyou-mondai wa Nihon no mi narazu, sekai zentai no kadai da.
    Environmental issues are not only Japan's but the world's challenge.

  2. この政策は経済のみならず、社会にも影響を与える。
    Kono seisaku wa keizai no mi narazu, shakai ni mo eikyou wo ataeru.
    This policy affects not only the economy but also society.

5.3 〜だけあって / 〜だけに

Structure: Noun/Clause + だけあって | Noun/Clause + だけに
Meaning (だけあって): As befitting; deserving of reputation; as expected of
Meaning (だけに): Precisely because; since (that particular fact)
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • だけあって: positive evaluation — the result matches the reputation or expectation.
  • だけに: neutral or negative — emphasizes the particular factor that makes the result noteworthy.

Examples:

  1. プロだけあって、仕事が速い。
    Puro dake atte, shigoto ga hayai.
    As befitting a professional, the work is fast.

  2. 高いだけあって、品質がすばらしい。
    Takai dake atte, hinshitsu ga subarashii.
    It's expensive, and the quality is accordingly wonderful.

  3. 試験が近いだけに、みんな必死に勉強している。
    Shiken ga chikai dake ni, minna hisshi ni benkyou shite iru.
    Precisely because the exam is near, everyone is studying desperately.

5.4 〜ばかりか

Structure: Noun/Clause + ばかりか
Meaning: Not only; not just; even more than
Register: Neutral to formal

Examples:

  1. 彼は日本語ばかりか、中国語も話せる。
    Kare wa nihongo bakari ka, chuugokugo mo hanaseru.
    He can speak not only Japanese but also Chinese.

  2. 失敗したばかりか、信頼まで失った。
    Shippai shita bakari ka, shinrai made ushinatta.
    Not only did he fail, he even lost trust.

6. Possibility and Impossibility

6.1 〜うる / 〜える

Structure: V-masu stem + うる / える
Meaning: To be possible; can possibly; there is a possibility of
Register: Formal; literary

Nuance:

  • うる is more literary/formal; える is more used in speech.
  • Means "conceivably possible" — used for abstract potential, not physical ability (for which できる is used).
  • Negative form: あり得ない (arienai) — "cannot possibly be" — very common expression.

Examples:

  1. そのような事故は起こりうる。
    Sono you na jiko wa okoriu ru.
    Such an accident is conceivably possible.

  2. これは十分に考えられ得る結果だ。
    Kore wa juubun ni kangaerare uru kekka da.
    This is a sufficiently conceivable result.

  3. あり得ないと思っていたことが現実になった。
    Arienai to omotte ita koto ga genjitsu ni natta.
    What I thought was impossible became reality.

6.2 〜かねる

Structure: V-masu stem + かねる
Meaning: Unable to; reluctant to; cannot bring oneself to
Register: Polite formal

Nuance:

  • Expresses RELUCTANT inability — not a physical impossibility but a social or emotional one.
  • Very common in polite refusals: ご要望にはお応えしかねます (I am unable to accommodate your request).
  • Softer than できない — used to refuse politely without sounding blunt.

Examples:

  1. その件については、お答えしかねます。
    Sono ken ni tsuite wa, okotae shikane masu.
    I am unable to answer regarding that matter.

  2. 彼の発言には賛成しかねる。
    Kare no hatsugen ni wa sansei shikane ru.
    I cannot bring myself to agree with his statement.

  3. ご要望にはお応えしかねる状況です。
    Goyoukyuu ni wa o-kotae shikaneru joukyou desu.
    We are in a situation where we cannot accommodate your request.

6.3 〜かねない

Structure: V-masu stem + かねない
Meaning: Might (do something bad); there's a risk of; could potentially
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • Expresses concern that a negative outcome might happen. The potential consequence is undesirable.
  • Note the directional difference: かねる (cannot do) vs. かねない (might [regrettably] do).

Examples:

  1. そんな行動を続けると、問題を引き起こしかねない。
    Sonna koudou wo tsuzukeru to, mondai wo hikiokoshire kaneai.
    If you continue such behavior, you might cause problems.

  2. このままでは、会社が倒産しかねない状況だ。
    Kono mama de wa, kaisha ga tousan shikane nai joukyou da.
    At this rate, there is a risk the company might go bankrupt.

6.4 〜はずもない

Structure: V-plain / Noun + の + はずもない
Meaning: There's no way; it's impossible that; can't possibly
Register: Neutral

Examples:

  1. 彼がそんなことをするはずもない。
    Kare ga sonna koto wo suru hazu mo nai.
    There's no way he would do such a thing.

  2. この問題に答えられるはずもない。
    Kono mondai ni kotaerareru hazu mo nai.
    There's no way I can answer this question.

7. Obligation and Necessity (Formal)

7.1 〜べき / 〜べきだ / 〜べきではない

Structure: V-dictionary + べき(だ) | Exception: するべき OR すべき
Meaning: Should; ought to; must
Register: Formal; authoritative

Nuance:

  • Expresses strong moral, logical, or situational obligation.
  • More authoritative than 〜たほうがいい; less rigid than 〜なければならない.
  • Often appears in written arguments: この問題を無視すべきではない.

Examples:

  1. 人として、約束は守るべきだ。
    Hito to shite, yakusoku wa mamoru beki da.
    As a person, one should keep promises.

  2. この事実は公表すべきではない。
    Kono jijitsu wa kouHyou subeki de wa nai.
    This fact should not be made public.

  3. 問題が発生した場合は、すぐに報告すべきだ。
    Mondai ga hassei shita baai wa, sugu ni houkoku subeki da.
    In case a problem arises, it should be reported immediately.

7.2 〜べく

Structure: V-dictionary + べく
Meaning: In order to; for the purpose of (formal)
Register: Formal; literary

Nuance:

  • Formal equivalent of 〜ために (in order to). Found in formal writing, official documents.
  • Indicates purpose with a strong sense of intention.

Examples:

  1. 目標を達成すべく、毎日練習した。
    Mokuhyou wo tassei subeku, mainichi renshuu shita.
    I practiced every day in order to achieve the goal.

  2. 問題を解決すべく、専門家が集まった。
    Mondai wo kaiketsu subeku, senmonka ga atsumatta.
    Experts gathered in order to solve the problem.

7.3 〜ずにはいられない

Structure: V-negative stem + ずにはいられない [する → せずにはいられない]
Meaning: Can't help but; cannot but; irresistibly compelled to
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Expresses an irresistible compulsion — the speaker cannot stop themselves from doing something.
  • Similar to 〜てしまう, but more formal and emphasizes the involuntary nature.

Examples:

  1. あの映画を見て、泣かずにはいられなかった。
    Ano eiga wo mite, nakazuni wa irarenakatta.
    I couldn't help but cry after watching that movie.

  2. その話を聞いて、笑わずにはいられない。
    Sono hanashi wo kiite, warawazuni wa irarenai.
    I can't help laughing after hearing that story.

8. Time Expressions (Formal/Written)

8.1 〜たところ

Structure: V-た + ところ
Meaning: Upon doing; as a result of; found that
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • Reports an unexpected or notable discovery made after completing an action.
  • The action is completed, then a finding follows.

Examples:

  1. 調べたところ、誤りが見つかった。
    Shirabeta tokoro, ayamari ga mitsukatta.
    Upon investigating, an error was found.

  2. 電話したところ、すでに出発していた。
    Denwa shita tokoro, sude ni shuppatsu shite ita.
    When I called, they had already departed.

8.2 〜にあたって / 〜にあたり

Structure: Noun / V-dictionary + にあたって / にあたり
Meaning: On the occasion of; when doing; in doing
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Used for important occasions or significant moments: graduation, opening of a ceremony, starting a project.
  • More formal than 〜とき.

Examples:

  1. 卒業にあたって、感謝の言葉を述べたい。
    Sotsugyou ni atatte, kansha no kotoba wo nobetai.
    On the occasion of graduation, I would like to express my gratitude.

  2. プロジェクトを開始するにあたり、いくつかの注意点がある。
    Purojekuto wo kaishi suru ni atari, ikutsu ka no chuuiten ga aru.
    When starting the project, there are a few points to be careful about.

8.3 〜に際して / 〜に際し

Structure: Noun / V-dictionary + に際して / に際し
Meaning: At the time of; on the occasion of; when
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Very close to 〜にあたって. Both mark important occasions.
  • 〜に際して tends to emphasize the specific moment; 〜にあたって can emphasize both the moment and preparation.
  • Both are used in formal speeches, announcements, and instructions.

Examples:

  1. 入学に際して、いくつかの書類が必要です。
    Nyuugaku ni saishite, ikutsu ka no shorui ga hitsuyou desu.
    At the time of enrollment, several documents are required.

  2. 新しい法律の施行に際し、説明会を開催する。
    Atarashii houritsu no shikou ni saishi, setsumeikai wo kaisai suru.
    On the occasion of the new law taking effect, we will hold an information session.

8.4 〜てからというもの

Structure: V-て + からというもの
Meaning: Ever since; from the time when (a significant change happened)
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Emphasizes that a significant, lasting change occurred after a specific event.
  • The change persists from that point onward.

Examples:

  1. 日本に来てからというもの、生活が大きく変わった。
    Nihon ni kite kara to iu mono, seikatsu ga ookiku kawatta.
    Ever since I came to Japan, my life has changed dramatically.

  2. 体を壊してからというもの、健康に気をつけるようになった。
    Karada wo kowashite kara to iu mono, kenkou ni ki wo tsukeru you ni natta.
    Ever since I ruined my health, I became careful about my wellbeing.

8.5 〜に先立って / 〜に先立ち

Structure: Noun / V-dictionary + に先立って / に先立ち
Meaning: Prior to; before; in advance of
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Used for preparations or actions that deliberately precede an important event.
  • More formal than 〜の前に.

Examples:

  1. 式典に先立って、リハーサルが行われた。
    Shikiten ni sakidatte, rihaasaru ga okonawareta.
    Prior to the ceremony, a rehearsal was held.

  2. 開会に先立ち、代表があいさつした。
    Kaikai ni sakidachi, daihyou ga aisatsu shita.
    Prior to the opening of the meeting, the representative gave a greeting.

9. Sentence Connectors and Discourse Patterns

9.1 〜上で / 〜た上で / 〜上での

Structure: V-dictionary + 上で | V-た + 上で | Noun + の上で
Meaning: After doing; in terms of; for the purpose of
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • V-dictionary + 上で: "in terms of X / for the purpose of X."
  • V-た + 上で: "after doing X (then Y)" — sequential action with implication of preparation.
  • Noun + の上で: "in terms of X / from the perspective of X."

Examples:

  1. 契約する上で、内容をよく確認してください。
    Keiyaku suru ue de, naiyou wo yoku kakunin shite kudasai.
    Please confirm the content carefully for the purpose of signing the contract.

  2. 検討した上で、返答します。
    Kentou shita ue de, hentou shimasu.
    I will respond after deliberating.

  3. 法律の上では、問題ない。
    Houritsu no ue de wa, mondai nai.
    In terms of the law, there is no problem.

9.2 〜からといって

Structure: Clause + からといって
Meaning: Just because; although; even though (but doesn't necessarily follow)
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Denies a natural inference: "Just because X, you shouldn't/can't conclude Y."
  • Always followed by a negation or unexpected outcome.

Examples:

  1. お金があるからといって、幸せとは限らない。
    Okane ga aru kara to itte, shiawase to wa kagiranai.
    Just because you have money doesn't mean you're happy.

  2. 難しいからといって、諦めてはいけない。
    Muzukashii kara to itte, akiramete wa ikenai.
    Just because it's difficult, you shouldn't give up.

9.3 〜といっても

Structure: Clause + といっても
Meaning: Even though I say; although it's called; it's not like
Register: Neutral

Nuance:

  • Softens or qualifies a previous statement: "I said X, but it's not as big/extreme as you might imagine."

Examples:

  1. 日本語ができるといっても、まだ初心者です。
    Nihongo ga dekiru to itte mo, mada shoshinsha desu.
    Even though I say I can speak Japanese, I'm still a beginner.

  2. 有名な場所といっても、地元の人しか知らない小さな店だ。
    Yuumei na basho to itte mo, jimoto no hito shika shiranai chiisa na mise da.
    Although I call it a famous place, it's a small shop only locals know.

9.4 〜からには / 〜以上(は)

Structure: Clause + からには | Clause + 以上(は)
Meaning: Since; now that; given that (strong obligation follows)
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • Both patterns establish a premise that creates an obligation or expectation.
  • 〜からには is used when the premise is given/decided.
  • 〜以上(は) can express this same meaning and is slightly more formal.

Examples:

  1. 約束したからには、守らなければならない。
    Yakusoku shita kara ni wa, mamoranakereba naranai.
    Since you made a promise, you must keep it.

  2. 参加すると決めた以上、最後までやり遂げるべきだ。
    Sanka suru to kimeta ijou, saigo made yaritogeru beki da.
    Now that you've decided to participate, you should see it through to the end.

9.5 〜以上に

Structure: Noun + 以上に | Clause + 以上に
Meaning: More than; beyond; to a greater degree than
Register: Neutral

Examples:

  1. 予想以上に難しかった。
    Yosou ijou ni muzukashikatta.
    It was more difficult than expected.

  2. 彼は私が思っていた以上に優秀だった。
    Kare wa watashi ga omotte ita ijou ni yuushuu datta.
    He was more excellent than I had thought.

10. Additional Key N2 Patterns

10.1 〜ものの

Structure: Clause + ものの
Meaning: Although; but; even though (concession)
Register: Neutral to formal

Examples:

  1. 日本語を勉強したものの、あまり話せない。
    Nihongo wo benkyou shita mono no, amari hanasenai.
    Although I studied Japanese, I can't speak it well.

  2. 参加しようとしたものの、体調が悪くて断念した。
    Sanka shiyou to shita mono no, taichou ga warukute dannen shita.
    Although I tried to participate, I gave up because I was feeling unwell.

10.2 〜に違いない

Structure: Clause + に違いない
Meaning: Must be; certainly; without doubt
Register: Neutral

Examples:

  1. あの笑顔を見れば、合格したに違いない。
    Ano egao wo mireba, goukaku shita ni chigainai.
    Seeing that smile, he must have passed.

10.3 〜にもかかわらず

Structure: Noun + にもかかわらず | Clause + にもかかわらず
Meaning: Despite; in spite of; even though
Register: Formal

Examples:

  1. 反対意見にもかかわらず、計画は実行された。
    Hantai-iken ni mo kakawarazu, keikaku wa jikkou sareta.
    Despite opposition, the plan was carried out.

  2. 悪天候にもかかわらず、大勢の人が集まった。
    Akutenkou ni mo kakawarazu, oozei no hito ga atsumatta.
    Despite the bad weather, many people gathered.

10.4 〜にほかならない

Structure: Noun / Clause + にほかならない
Meaning: Nothing other than; is precisely; is exactly
Register: Formal

Nuance:

  • Emphatic identification. Asserts that X is precisely Y and nothing else.

Examples:

  1. これは彼の努力の結果にほかならない。
    Kore wa kare no doryoku no kekka ni hoka naranai.
    This is nothing other than the result of his efforts.

10.5 〜をきっかけに / 〜をきっかけとして

Structure: Noun + をきっかけに(して)
Meaning: Using ~ as a trigger/opportunity; sparked by; as a result of
Register: Neutral

Examples:

  1. 留学をきっかけに、国際感覚が身についた。
    Ryuugaku wo kikkake ni, kokusai-kankaku ga mi ni tsuita.
    Studying abroad became a trigger for developing an international perspective.

  2. 事故をきっかけとして、安全対策が強化された。
    Jiko wo kikkake to shite, anzen-taisaku ga kyouka sareta.
    Triggered by the accident, safety measures were strengthened.

10.6 〜に対して / 〜に対する

Structure: Noun + に対して / に対する
Meaning: Toward; against; in response to; regarding (with a focus on the target)
Register: Neutral to formal

Nuance:

  • に対して emphasizes directionality — an action/attitude aimed AT something.
  • 〜に関して means simply "concerning" without the directional emphasis.

Examples:

  1. 批判に対して、冷静に反論した。
    Hihan ni taishite, reisei ni hanron shita.
    In response to the criticism, I calmly refuted.

  2. 外国人観光客に対するサービスを充実させる。
    Gaikokujin kankou-kyaku ni taisuru saabisu wo juujitsu saseru.
    We will improve services targeted at foreign tourists.

11. Keigo at N2 Level (Recognition)

N2 requires recognition of honorific language patterns in listening and reading. Active production is less critical than understanding.

Sonkeigo (尊敬語) — Elevating the other person's actions

Plain form Sonkeigo form Meaning
いる いらっしゃる to be (exists)
行く いらっしゃる to go
来る いらっしゃる to come
言う おっしゃる to say
する なさる to do
食べる/飲む めしあがる to eat/drink
もらう — (no sonkeigo; use 謙譲語 for receiving from others)
くれる くださる to give (to me)
見る ご覧になる to see/look
知っている ご存知 to know
着る お召しになる to wear

Kenjougo (謙譲語) — Lowering one's own actions

Plain form Kenjougo form Meaning
いる おります to be (exists)
行く/来る まいる to go/come
言う 申す to say
する いたす to do
食べる/飲む いただく to eat/drink (humble)
もらう いただく to receive
あげる さしあげる to give (to superior)
見る 拝見する to see/look
知っている 存じております to know
訪問する 伺う(うかがう) to visit

12. Grammar Pattern Comparison Reference

Key comparison sets that appear as N2 exam discrimination questions:

Pattern A Pattern B Key difference
〜に従って 〜に沿って 従って = following rules/authority; 沿って = along a path/guideline
〜に基づいて 〜をもとに 基づいて = formal/legal basis; をもとに = source material/inspiration
〜にかかわらず 〜を問わず Both mean "regardless of" — を問わず is slightly more formal in announcements
〜わけにはいかない 〜ざるを得ない わけにはいかない = social impossibility; ざるを得ない = reluctant compulsion
〜かねる 〜かねない かねる = reluctant inability; かねない = risk of (negative outcome)
〜というわけではない 〜とは限らない というわけではない = denies specific inference; とは限らない = denies universal claim
〜にあたって 〜に際して Very similar; にあたって emphasizes preparation; に際して emphasizes the moment
〜だけあって 〜だけに だけあって = positive matching expectation; だけに = emphasis on a specific factor
〜からには 〜以上は Both = "now that/since (obligation)"; 以上は is slightly more formal
〜に対して 〜に関して に対して = directed at/against; に関して = simply concerning/about