JLPT N3 — Grammar (~200 Patterns)
Complete N3 grammar reference: ~200 patterns including conjunctions, conditions, degree expressions, formal structures, and nuanced patterns that distinguish N3 from N4. Each pattern includes structure, meaning, and 3+ example sentences.
N3 grammar is a major step up from N4. The patterns are longer, context-dependent, and often have subtle distinctions that require you to understand the nuance — not just the rule. Many patterns look similar (〜ために vs 〜ので vs 〜から) but carry different registers, focus, and implications. This page covers all ~200 N3 grammar patterns with full explanations and examples.
How to Use This Page
Each grammar entry follows this format:
- Pattern (with form notation)
- Meaning and nuance
- Formation rules (what attaches to what)
- Example sentences (Japanese → romaji → English)
- Comparison with similar patterns (where relevant)
Formation shorthand:
- V = verb (dictionary form unless otherwise noted)
- Vた = verb (ta-form / past)
- Vて = verb (te-form)
- Vます = verb (masu-stem)
- N = noun
- i-adj = i-adjective
- na-adj = na-adjective
- Plain = plain form (any tense)
Part 1: Conjunctions and Transitions
1. 〜ため(に) — cause/purpose
Meaning: Used for both purpose ("in order to") and cause ("because of / due to"). The key difference from 〜から and 〜ので is that 〜ために is more formal and more common in written Japanese.
Formation:
- Purpose: V[dictionary] + ために / N + のために
- Cause: Plain form + ために / N + のために
Examples:
Purpose:
健康になるために、毎日運動しています。 Kenkou ni naru tame ni, mainichi undou shite imasu. I exercise every day in order to become healthy.
大学に合格するために、一生懸命勉強した。 Daigaku ni goukaku suru tame ni, isshoukenmei benkyou shita. I studied hard in order to pass the university entrance exam.
Cause:
雪のために電車が遅れた。 Yuki no tame ni densha ga okureta. The train was delayed due to snow.
病気のために、会議に出席できませんでした。 Byouki no tame ni, kaigi ni shusseki dekimasen deshita. I couldn't attend the meeting because of illness.
Compare: 〜から (casual, subjective reason) / 〜ので (soft, seeking understanding) / 〜ために (formal, neutral, used in writing)
2. 〜によって / 〜による — by means of; depending on; due to
Meaning: This pattern has THREE distinct meanings — you must identify which from context.
- Means/agent: "by means of / by" (passive agent)
- Cause: "due to / because of"
- Variation: "depending on / varies by"
Formation: N + によって / N + による + N
Examples:
Means/agent:
この建物は有名な建築家によって設計された。 Kono tatemono wa yuumei na kenchikuka ni yotte sekkei sareta. This building was designed by a famous architect.
Cause:
不注意によって事故が起きた。 Fuchuui ni yotte jiko ga okita. The accident occurred due to carelessness.
Variation:
人によって、考え方が違う。 Hito ni yotte, kangaekata ga chigau. The way of thinking differs depending on the person.
場合によっては、変更することがある。 Baai ni yotte wa, henkou suru koto ga aru. In some cases, changes may be made.
Compare: 〜によると (I heard from / according to — hearsay) vs 〜によって (by means of / depending on)
3. 〜において / 〜における — in; at; in terms of (formal/written)
Meaning: Formal equivalent of で indicating location, time, or field. Very common in written Japanese, news, and formal speech. Rarely used in casual conversation.
Formation: N + において / N + における + N
Examples:
現代社会において、情報は重要な役割を果たす。 Gendai shakai ni oite, jouhou wa juuyou na yakuwari wo hatasu. In modern society, information plays an important role.
このプロジェクトにおける課題を報告します。 Kono purojekuto ni okeru kadai wo houkoku shimasu. I will report on the challenges in this project.
試験において、不正行為は許されない。 Shiken ni oite, fusei koui wa yurusarenai. In examinations, academic dishonesty is not permitted.
Compare: で (casual location/field) vs における (formal, written)
4. 〜に関して / 〜に関する — regarding; concerning
Meaning: "Regarding; concerning; on the topic of." More formal than 〜について and used in written contexts more often.
Formation: N + に関して / N + に関する + N
Examples:
この問題に関して、意見を述べてください。 Kono mondai ni kanshite, iken wo nobete kudasai. Please state your opinion regarding this issue.
環境に関する報告書を読んだ。 Kankyou ni kansuru houkokusho wo yonda. I read the report on environmental issues.
採用に関してのご質問は、人事部にお問い合わせください。 Saiyou ni kanshite no go-shitsumon wa, jinji bu ni otoiawase kudasai. For questions regarding hiring, please contact the HR department.
Compare: 〜について (general "about/regarding" — neutral register) vs 〜に関して (more formal, for specific topic focus)
5. 〜に対して / 〜に対する — toward; against; in response to
Meaning: Indicates the target or direction of an action, feeling, or attitude. Can mean "toward," "to," "against," or "in contrast to."
Formation: N + に対して / N + に対する + N
Examples:
部長に対して、失礼な態度を取ってしまった。 Buchou ni taishite, shitsurei na taido wo totte shimatta. I ended up being rude toward the department head.
批判に対して、冷静に対応する必要がある。 Hihan ni taishite, reisei ni taiou suru hitsuyou ga aru. It is necessary to respond calmly to criticism.
去年に対して、今年は売上が増えた。 Kyonen ni taishite, kotoshi wa uriage ga fueta. Compared to last year, sales increased this year.
6. 〜として / 〜とした — as; in the role of; in the capacity of
Meaning: Indicates role, capacity, or classification. "(Acting) as ~" or "in the position of ~"
Formation: N + として / N + とした + N
Examples:
彼は専門家として意見を述べた。 Kare wa senmonka to shite iken wo nobeta. He stated his opinion as an expert.
外国語として日本語を学ぶ学生が増えている。 Gaikokugo to shite nihongo wo manabu gakusei ga fuete iru. The number of students learning Japanese as a foreign language is increasing.
規則として、会議への出席は必須です。 Kisoku to shite, kaigi e no shusseki wa hissu desu. As a rule, attendance at meetings is mandatory.
7. 〜にとって — for (someone); from someone's perspective
Meaning: "For ~" or "from the perspective of ~" — evaluating something from a specific person's point of view.
Formation: N (person/group) + にとって
Examples:
子供にとって、遊ぶことは重要だ。 Kodomo ni totte, asobu koto wa juuyou da. For children, playing is important.
私にとって、この経験は忘れられない思い出になった。 Watashi ni totte, kono keiken wa wasurerarenai omoide ni natta. For me, this experience became an unforgettable memory.
彼女にとって、家族が一番大切なものだ。 Kanojo ni totte, kazoku ga ichiban taisetsu na mono da. For her, family is the most important thing.
Compare: 〜に対して (targeting/toward) vs 〜にとって (from the perspective of)
8. 〜に比べて / 〜に比べると — compared to
Meaning: "Compared to ~." Used to make explicit comparisons.
Formation: N + に比べて / N + に比べると
Examples:
去年に比べて、気温が高い。 Kyonen ni kurabete, kion ga takai. Compared to last year, the temperature is high.
弟に比べると、私は身長が低い。 Otouto ni kuraberu to, watashi wa shinchOU ga hikui. Compared to my younger brother, I am shorter.
都市部に比べて、田舎は静かだ。 Toshibu ni kurabete, inaka wa shizuka da. Compared to urban areas, the countryside is quiet.
9. 〜とともに — together with; as ~ (proportional change)
Meaning: Two distinct uses:
- "Together with ~" (accompaniment)
- "As ~ changes, so does ~" (proportional change — very important for N3)
Formation: N + とともに / Plain form + とともに
Examples: Accompaniment:
家族とともに旅行した。 Kazoku to tomo ni ryokou shita. I traveled together with my family.
Proportional change:
時代の変化とともに、価値観も変わってきた。 Jidai no henka to tomo ni, kachikan mo kawatte kita. As the times changed, so did people's values.
年をとるとともに、体力が落ちてきた。 Toshi wo toru to tomo ni, tairyoku ga ochite kita. As I have gotten older, my physical strength has declined.
10. 〜につれて / 〜にしたがって — as ~ (proportional change)
Meaning: Both mean "as X changes, Y changes accordingly." Often interchangeable, but nuance differs slightly:
- 〜につれて: natural/gradual change, often physical or time-based
- 〜にしたがって: following a change, often more deliberate or rule-based
Formation: V[dictionary] / N の変化 + につれて / にしたがって
Examples:
時間が経つにつれて、傷が癒えた。 Jikan ga tatsu ni tsurete, kizu ga ieta. As time passed, the wound healed.
日が沈むにつれて、気温が下がっていった。 Hi ga shizumu ni tsurete, kion ga sagatte itta. As the sun set, the temperature gradually fell.
説明書にしたがって、組み立ててください。 Setsumei sho ni shitagatte, kumitate te kudasai. Please assemble it according to the instructions.
11. 〜に応じて — according to; in response to; depending on
Meaning: "In response to ~; according to; in proportion to." Implies adjusting or responding appropriately.
Formation: N + に応じて / N + に応じた + N
Examples:
状況に応じて、対応を変える必要がある。 Joukyou ni oujite, taiou wo kaeru hitsuyou ga aru. It is necessary to change the response according to the situation.
能力に応じた仕事を任せてほしい。 Nouryoku ni oujita shigoto wo makasete hoshii. I want to be given work appropriate to my ability.
需要に応じて、生産量を調整する。 Juyou ni oujite, seisan ryou wo chousei suru. We adjust production volume in response to demand.
Part 2: Conditions, Limits, and Scope
12. 〜さえ〜ば — if only ... then (that's enough)
Meaning: "If only ~ (then it's fine)." Expresses that one condition is all that is needed for a result.
Formation: N + さえ + V[conditional ば] / V[ます-stem] + さえすれば
Examples:
お金さえあれば、何でもできる。 Okane sae areba, nan demo dekiru. If I only have money, I can do anything.
健康でさえあれば、それで十分だ。 Kenkou de sae areba, sore de juubun da. As long as I'm healthy, that's enough.
努力さえすれば、夢は叶う。 Doryoku sae sureba, yume wa kanau. As long as you put in effort, your dream will come true.
13. 〜さえ — even; as long as (standalone)
Meaning: "Even ~" — highlights something unexpected or extreme as an example or condition.
Formation: N / V[て-form] + さえ
Examples:
子供でさえ知っている。 Kodomo de sae shitte iru. Even children know that.
疲れていて、歩くことさえできない。 Tsukarete ite, aruku koto sae dekinai. I'm so tired that I can't even walk.
14. 〜だけでなく〜も — not only ... but also
Meaning: "Not only A but also B." Expresses addition and broadening of scope.
Formation: N / Plain form + だけでなく + (N / phrase) + も
Examples:
日本語だけでなく、英語も話せます。 Nihongo dake de naku, eigo mo hanasemasu. I can speak not only Japanese but also English.
環境問題は国内だけでなく、世界的な課題だ。 Kankyou mondai wa kokunai dake de naku, sekaiteki na kadai da. Environmental issues are not just a domestic challenge but a global one.
彼は歌うだけでなく、作曲もできる。 Kare wa utau dake de naku, sakkyoku mo dekiru. He can not only sing but also compose music.
15. 〜ばかりでなく — not only, not just (more emphatic)
Meaning: Same as 〜だけでなく but more emphatic/formal. Often used in writing.
Formation: N / Plain form + ばかりでなく
Examples:
彼は頭がいいばかりでなく、性格もいい。 Kare wa atama ga ii bakari de naku, seikaku mo ii. He is not only intelligent but also has a good personality.
その政策は経済ばかりでなく、社会にも影響を与えた。 Sono seisaku wa keizai bakari de naku, shakai ni mo eikyou wo ataeta. That policy had an impact not only on the economy but also on society.
16. 〜に加えて — in addition to
Meaning: "In addition to ~; on top of ~." Formal expression of addition.
Formation: N + に加えて
Examples:
雨に加えて、風も強くなってきた。 Ame ni kuwaete, kaze mo tsuyoku natte kita. In addition to rain, the wind has also gotten stronger.
語学力に加えて、コミュニケーション能力も重要だ。 Gogakuryoku ni kuwaete, komyunikeeshon nouryoku mo juuyou da. In addition to language ability, communication skills are also important.
17. 〜上に (うえに) — moreover; on top of that
Meaning: "Moreover; on top of ~; in addition to ~." Implies stacking of qualities (usually negative or unusual).
Formation: Plain form + 上に / N な (na-adj) + 上に / i-adj + 上に
Examples:
彼女は美しい上に、頭もいい。 Kanojo wa utsukushii ue ni, atama mo ii. She is beautiful, and moreover, intelligent.
この仕事は給料が安い上に、仕事量が多い。 Kono shigoto wa kyuuryou ga yasui ue ni, shigoto ryou ga ooi. This job has low pay, and on top of that, a heavy workload.
18. 〜どころか — far from; let alone; on the contrary
Meaning: "Far from ~; let alone ~." Used to strongly contradict the expectation in the first clause.
Formation: N / Plain form + どころか
Examples:
日本語どころか、英語も話せない。 Nihongo doko ro ka, eigo mo hanasenai. I can't even speak English, let alone Japanese.
助けてくれるどころか、邪魔をした。 Tasukete kureru doko ro ka, jama wo shita. Far from helping me, he got in the way.
良くなるどころか、悪化している。 Yoku naru dokoroka, akka shite iru. Far from getting better, it is getting worse.
19. 〜わけではない — it doesn't mean that; it's not that
Meaning: "It's not that ~; it doesn't necessarily mean ~." Used to soften or partially negate a claim.
Formation: Plain form + わけではない / N な + わけではない
Examples:
嫌いなわけではないが、得意でもない。 Kirai na wake de wa nai ga, tokui de mo nai. It's not that I dislike it, but I'm not good at it either.
毎日遅刻するわけではないが、時々ある。 Mainichi chikoku suru wake de wa nai ga, tokidoki aru. It's not that I'm late every day, but it does happen sometimes.
20. 〜わけがない — there's no way that; it's impossible that
Meaning: "There's no way that ~." Expresses logical impossibility or strong disbelief.
Formation: Plain form + わけがない
Examples:
あの人が嘘をつくわけがない。 Ano hito ga uso wo tsuku wake ga nai. There's no way that person would lie.
宿題をしなかったのに、100点が取れるわけがない。 Shukudai wo shinakatta noni, hyakuten ga toreru wake ga nai. I didn't do the homework, so there's no way I can get 100 points.
21. 〜わけにはいかない — can't/mustn't (due to social obligation)
Meaning: "Can't do ~ (even if I want to)." Expresses that social obligations, ethics, or circumstances prevent an action. Different from ability (できない) — this is about what one may or must not do.
Formation: V[dictionary] + わけにはいかない / V[negative plain] + わけにはいかない
Examples:
病気でも、この仕事は休むわけにはいかない。 Byouki demo, kono shigoto wa yasumu wake ni wa ikanai. Even if I'm sick, I can't take time off this job (it would be wrong to).
秘密だから、話すわけにはいかない。 Himitsu dakara, hanasu wake ni wa ikanai. It's a secret, so I can't talk about it.
彼が頑張っているのに、諦めるわけにはいかない。 Kare ga ganbatte iru noni, akirameru wake ni wa ikanai. While he's working so hard, I can't give up.
Part 3: Expressing Degree
22. 〜ほど〜ない — not as ... as
Meaning: "Not as ~ as ~." Compares two things, saying one is less than the other.
Formation: N + ほど + Neg. adj/verb
Examples:
今日は昨日ほど寒くない。 Kyou wa kinou hodo samukunai. Today is not as cold as yesterday.
数学はそれほど難しくない。 Suugaku wa sore hodo muzukashiku nai. Math is not as difficult as that (not so difficult).
23. 〜ば〜ほど — the more ... the more
Meaning: "The more ~ the more ~." Expresses proportional increase.
Formation: V[conditional ば] + V[dictionary] + ほど / i-adj[ければ] + adj + ほど
Examples:
勉強すればするほど、上手になる。 Benkyou sureba suru hodo, jouzu ni naru. The more you study, the better you become.
読めば読むほど、日本語が好きになった。 Yomeba yomu hodo, nihongo ga suki ni natta. The more I read, the more I came to like Japanese.
高ければ高いほど、売れにくい。 Takake reba takai hodo, ure nikui. The more expensive it is, the harder it is to sell.
24. 〜くらい / 〜ぐらい — about; to the extent that
Meaning: "About ~; approximately ~; to the extent of ~." Expresses approximate degree or an extreme example.
Formation: N / Plain form + くらい/ぐらい
Examples:
2時間くらいかかります。 Ni jikan kurai kakarimasu. It takes about 2 hours.
恥ずかしくて、死にたいくらいだった。 Hazukashikute, shinitai kurai datta. I was so embarrassed, I could have died (lit: to the extent of wanting to die).
25. 〜なんか / 〜なんて — things like; such as (dismissive/surprised)
Meaning: Used to dismiss, downplay, or express surprise. More casual than formal 〜など.
Formation: N + なんか / N / Plain form + なんて
Examples:
お金なんか興味がない。 Okane nanka kyoumi ga nai. I have no interest in money (dismissive).
彼が来るなんて思わなかった。 Kare ga kuru nante omowanakatta. I never thought he would come! (surprised)
Part 4: Time and Sequence
26. 〜うちに — while; before it's too late; before things change
Meaning: "While ~; before ~ changes." Implies acting during a limited window before conditions change.
Formation: V[dictionary/ている] + うちに / i-adj + うちに / na-adj + な + うちに / N の + うちに
Examples:
若いうちに、たくさん旅行したい。 Wakai uchi ni, takusan ryokou shitai. I want to travel a lot while I'm young.
温かいうちに食べてください。 Atatakai uchi ni tabete kudasai. Please eat it while it's warm.
覚えているうちにメモしておいた。 Oboete iru uchi ni memo shite oita. I took notes while I still remembered.
27. 〜たびに — every time; whenever
Meaning: "Every time ~ happens, ..." Something occurs without exception whenever the trigger event happens.
Formation: V[dictionary] + たびに / N + のたびに
Examples:
この歌を聞くたびに、故郷を思い出す。 Kono uta wo kiku tabi ni, kokyou wo omoidasu. Every time I hear this song, I remember my hometown.
会うたびに、彼女は元気そうだった。 Au tabi ni, kanojo wa genki sou datta. Every time we met, she seemed well.
試験のたびに緊張する。 Shiken no tabi ni kinchou suru. Every time there's an exam, I get nervous.
28. 〜とたんに — just as; the moment; no sooner than
Meaning: "The instant ~ happened, ~." Used for an immediate, often unexpected result. The second clause often conveys something that happens spontaneously or suddenly.
Formation: V[た-form] + とたんに
Examples:
ドアを開けたとたんに、猫が飛び出した。 Doa wo aketa totan ni, neko ga tobidashita. The instant I opened the door, the cat leapt out.
横になったとたんに、眠ってしまった。 Yoko ni natta totan ni, nemutte shimatta. The moment I lay down, I fell asleep.
29. 〜て以来 (ていらい) — since (doing)
Meaning: "Since ~ happened..." Indicates that a situation has continued from the point of an action up to the present.
Formation: V[て-form] + 以来
Examples:
日本に来て以来、ずっと仕事が忙しい。 Nihon ni kite irai, zutto shigoto ga isogashii. Since coming to Japan, I've been busy with work.
彼と別れて以来、一度も会っていない。 Kare to wakarete irai, ichido mo atte inai. Since we broke up, I haven't seen him even once.
30. 〜てからでないと — not until after doing; only after doing
Meaning: "Not until ~ is done first." Expresses that action B cannot happen until action A is completed.
Formation: V[て-form] + からでないと
Examples:
確認してからでないと、返事ができません。 Kakunin shite kara de nai to, henji ga dekimasen. I can't reply until I've checked first.
食事してからでないと、薬を飲まないでください。 Shokuji shite kara de nai to, kusuri wo nomanaide kudasai. Please don't take the medicine until after eating.
Part 5: Appearance, Hearsay, and Quotation
31. 〜ということだ — I hear that; it means that; in other words
Meaning: Two uses:
- Hearsay: "I hear that ~; apparently ~" (indirect information)
- Explanation: "That means ~; in other words ~"
Formation: Plain form + ということだ
Examples: Hearsay:
明日から出張だということだ。 Ashita kara shucchou da to iu koto da. I hear he's on a business trip from tomorrow.
Explanation:
合格できなかったということは、もっと努力が必要だということだ。 Goukaku dekinakatta to iu koto wa, motto doryoku ga hitsuyou da to iu koto da. Not being able to pass means more effort is needed.
32. 〜とのことだ — I heard that (indirect report, polite)
Meaning: "I heard that ~." Used when relaying information you received from someone else. More polite/formal than ということだ. Common in business communication.
Formation: Plain form + とのことだ / とのこと
Examples:
部長は今日休みだとのことだ。 Buchou wa kyou yasumi da to no koto da. I heard that the manager is taking the day off today.
ご注文の商品は明日届くとのことです。 Gochuumon no shouhin wa ashita todoku to no koto desu. The ordered items will apparently arrive tomorrow.
33. 〜とか (hearsay; listing examples)
Meaning: "I hear that ~; such as; things like." Adds vagueness or approximation, used for listing or expressing hearsay casually.
Formation: Plain form + とか / N + とか + N + とか
Examples:
彼は来月結婚するとか。 Kare wa raigetsu kekkon suru to ka. I hear he's getting married next month.
趣味はテニスとかゴルフとか。 Shumi wa tenisu to ka gorufu to ka. My hobbies are things like tennis and golf.
34. 〜かのようだ / 〜かのように — as if; as though
Meaning: "As if ~; as though ~." Describes something that resembles a condition that is actually not true.
Formation: Plain form + かのようだ / かのように + V
Examples:
まるで夢を見ているかのようだ。 Maru de yume wo mite iru ka no you da. It feels just as if I'm dreaming.
彼は何も知らないかのように振る舞った。 Kare wa nani mo shiranai ka no you ni furumaatta. He acted as if he knew nothing.
台風が来たかのような強い風だ。 Taifuu ga kita ka no you na tsuyoi kaze da. It's a strong wind, as if a typhoon had come.
35. 〜にちがいない — must be; no doubt; I'm sure that
Meaning: "Must be ~; there's no doubt that ~." Strong certainty based on evidence or reasoning.
Formation: Plain form + にちがいない
Examples:
あの光は星にちがいない。 Ano hikari wa hoshi ni chigai nai. That light must be a star.
彼が遅れているのは電車が混んでいるにちがいない。 Kare ga okurete iru no wa densha ga konde iru ni chigai nai. He must be late because the train is crowded.
Compare: にちがいない (strong certainty, my conclusion) vs はずだ (expectation based on logic) vs らしい (based on external evidence)
36. 〜はずがない — there's no way; can't be
Meaning: "There's no way that ~." Logical impossibility — based on what you know, the situation cannot be true.
Formation: Plain form + はずがない / N + の + はずがない
Examples:
彼がそんなことをするはずがない。 Kare ga sonna koto wo suru hazu ga nai. There's no way he would do such a thing.
こんなに安いはずがない。何かおかしい。 Konna ni yasui hazu ga nai. Nani ka okashii. It can't be this cheap. Something is off.
Part 6: Ability, Tendency, and Difficulty
37. 〜がちだ — tend to; prone to; often happens (usually negative)
Meaning: "Tend to ~; prone to ~." Describes a tendency, often undesirable or unintentional.
Formation: V[ます-stem] + がちだ / N + がちだ
Examples:
冬は病気になりがちだ。 Fuyu wa byouki ni nari gachi da. In winter, one tends to get sick.
彼は遅刻しがちだ。 Kare wa chikoku shi gachi da. He tends to be late.
一人だと偏食になりがちだ。 Hitori da to henshoku ni nari gachi da. When living alone, one tends to eat an unbalanced diet.
38. 〜やすい / 〜にくい — easy to do / hard to do
Meaning:
- 〜やすい: "easy to ~; tend to ~" (natural tendency)
- 〜にくい: "hard to ~; difficult to ~"
Formation: V[ます-stem] + やすい / にくい
Examples:
この本は読みやすい。 Kono hon wa yomiyasui. This book is easy to read.
この字は読みにくい。 Kono ji wa yominikui. This character is hard to read.
このペンは書きやすいです。 Kono pen wa kakiyasui desu. This pen is easy to write with.
39. 〜得る / 〜得ない (うる/えない) — can possibly; cannot possibly
Meaning:
- 〜得る (うる/える): "can possibly ~; it is possible to ~"
- 〜得ない (えない): "cannot possibly; it's impossible to ~"
Formation: V[ます-stem] + 得る / 得ない
Examples:
そんなことは起こり得る。 Sonna koto wa okori uru. Such a thing can possibly happen.
これ以上の改善は考え得ない。 Kore ijou no kaizen wa kangae enai. Further improvement is inconceivable.
最悪の場合、こういうことも起こり得る。 Saiaku no baai, kou iu koto mo okori uru. In the worst case, such things can also happen.
40. 〜べきだ / 〜べきではない — should / shouldn't (moral/logical obligation)
Meaning: "Should ~; ought to ~." Expresses that something is the correct, proper, or logical thing to do. Stronger and more objective than 〜たほうがいい.
Formation: V[dictionary] + べきだ (exception: する → すべきだ or するべきだ)
Examples:
約束は守るべきだ。 Yakusoku wa mamoru beki da. One should keep promises.
人の悪口を言うべきではない。 Hito no waruguchi wo iu beki de wa nai. You shouldn't speak ill of others.
もっと早く行動すべきだった。 Motto hayaku koudou subeki datta. I should have acted sooner.
Part 7: Formal Patterns (Written Japanese)
41. 〜に当たって / 〜に当たり — on the occasion of; when doing (formal)
Meaning: "On the occasion of ~; when ~." Used to mark a significant moment, often in formal speeches, notices, or ceremonies.
Formation: V[dictionary] / N + に当たって / に当たり
Examples:
卒業に当たって、一言ご挨拶申し上げます。 Sotsugyou ni atatte, hitokoto go-aisatsu moushiagemasu. On the occasion of graduation, I would like to say a few words.
新年度に当たり、抱負をお聞かせください。 Shinnnendo ni atari, houfuu wo okikase kudasai. At the start of the new fiscal year, please share your aspirations.
42. 〜に際して / 〜に際し — on the occasion of; at the time of (formal)
Meaning: Very similar to 〜に当たって, but 〜に際して emphasizes the specific time/moment of a significant event, especially for instructions or precautions.
Formation: V[dictionary] / N + に際して / に際し
Examples:
入学に際して、いくつかの注意事項があります。 Nyuugaku ni saishite, ikutsu ka no chuui jikou ga arimasu. At the time of enrollment, there are a few things to note.
契約に際しては、よく内容を確認してください。 Keiyaku ni saishite wa, yoku naiyou wo kakunin shite kudasai. When signing a contract, please check the content carefully.
43. 〜をきっかけに — taking the opportunity of; triggered by; as a starting point
Meaning: "Taking ~ as a starting point; because of ~ (as a trigger)." Indicates a triggering event that led to a change or new direction.
Formation: N + をきっかけに / N + をきっかけにして
Examples:
この事故をきっかけに、交通ルールが見直された。 Kono jiko wo kikkake ni, koutsuu ruuru ga minaoosa reta. This accident triggered a review of traffic rules.
留学をきっかけに、将来の夢が変わった。 Ryuugaku wo kikkake ni, shourai no yume ga kawatta. Studying abroad was the starting point that changed my future dreams.
彼女との出会いをきっかけに、日本に興味を持つようになった。 Kanojo to no deai wo kikkake ni, nihon ni kyoumi wo motsu you ni natta. Meeting her was the trigger that made me interested in Japan.
Part 8: Additional N3 Grammar Patterns
44. 〜ようになる — come to; become able to (gradual change)
Meaning: "Come to ~; gradually become able to ~." Expresses a gradual change in ability or habit.
Formation: V[dictionary] + ようになる / V[negative] + ようになる
Examples:
練習の結果、泳げるようになった。 Renshuu no kekka, oyogeru you ni natta. As a result of practice, I came to be able to swim.
最近、野菜が食べられるようになった。 Saikin, yasai ga taberareru you ni natta. Recently, I've come to be able to eat vegetables.
年をとって、早起きができないようになってしまった。 Toshi wo totte, hayaoki ga dekinai you ni natte shimatta. As I got older, I became unable to wake up early.
45. 〜ようにする — make an effort to; try to (habitual effort)
Meaning: "Try to ~; make sure to ~; make a habit of ~." Expresses a deliberate, ongoing effort.
Formation: V[dictionary] + ようにする / V[negative] + ようにする
Examples:
毎日運動するようにしています。 Mainichi undou suru you ni shite imasu. I try to exercise every day.
なるべく野菜を食べるようにしている。 Narubeku yasai wo taberu you ni shite iru. I try to eat vegetables as much as possible.
46. 〜ことになる — it has been decided that; it turns out that
Meaning: Expresses that something has been decided (by external circumstances or others), or that a situation results naturally. Differs from 〜ことにする (one's own decision).
Formation: V[dictionary] + ことになる / V[negative] + ことになる
Examples:
来月から東京に転勤することになった。 Raigetsu kara Toukyou ni tenkin suru koto ni natta. It has been decided that I will transfer to Tokyo from next month.
結局、その計画は中止することになった。 Kekkyoku, sono keikaku wa chuushi suru koto ni natta. In the end, it was decided that the plan would be cancelled.
47. 〜ことにする — decide to (one's own decision)
Meaning: "Decide to ~." The speaker or subject actively makes a decision.
Formation: V[dictionary] + ことにする / V[negative] + ことにする
Examples:
タバコをやめることにした。 Tabako wo yameru koto ni shita. I decided to quit smoking.
毎日日記を書くことにしました。 Mainichi nikki wo kaku koto ni shimashita. I decided to write in a diary every day.
48. 〜てもらう / 〜てもらえないか — have someone do for me; could you please
Meaning: "Have/get someone to do something for me." The key nuance: the action benefits the speaker.
Formation: Person に + V[て-form] + もらう
Examples:
先生に論文を見てもらった。 Sensei ni ronbun wo mite moratta. I had my teacher look at my thesis.
駅まで送ってもらえないでしょうか。 Eki made okutte moraenai deshou ka. Could you take me to the station? (polite request)
49. 〜ていただく / 〜ていただけないでしょうか — (humble) have someone do; polite request
Meaning: Humble form of 〜てもらう. Essential for formal speech and writing.
Formation: Person に + V[て-form] + いただく
Examples:
ご確認いただけますか。 Go-kakunin itadakemasu ka. Could you please confirm this?
ご意見をいただけると幸いです。 Go-iken wo itadakeru to saiwai desu. I would be grateful if I could receive your opinion.
50. 〜ことはない — no need to; there's no reason to
Meaning: "There is no need to ~; no reason to ~." Used to reassure someone that an action is unnecessary.
Formation: V[dictionary] + ことはない
Examples:
そんなに謝ることはない。 Sonna ni ayamaru koto wa nai. There's no need to apologize so much.
心配することはないですよ。 Shinpai suru koto wa nai desu yo. There's no need to worry.
51. 〜に過ぎない — nothing more than; merely; only
Meaning: "It's nothing more than ~; merely; only ~." Downplays or minimizes.
Formation: N / Plain form + に過ぎない
Examples:
これは私の意見に過ぎない。 Kore wa watashi no iken ni suginai. This is nothing more than my opinion.
彼の言葉は冗談に過ぎない。 Kare no kotoba wa joudan ni suginai. His words are nothing more than a joke.
52. 〜に反して / 〜に反する — against; contrary to; in opposition to
Meaning: "Against ~; contrary to ~; in violation of ~"
Formation: N + に反して / N + に反する + N
Examples:
予想に反して、試験は簡単だった。 Yosou ni hanshite, shiken wa kantan datta. Contrary to expectations, the exam was easy.
規則に反する行動はしないでください。 Kisoku ni hansuru koudou wa shinaide kudasai. Please do not take actions against the rules.
53. 〜に基づいて / 〜に基づく — based on; according to; founded on
Meaning: "Based on ~; on the basis of ~." Used when a decision, action, or conclusion is derived from data, facts, or rules.
Formation: N + に基づいて / N + に基づく + N
Examples:
データに基づいて、分析を行った。 Deeta ni motozuite, bunseki wo okonatta. Analysis was conducted based on the data.
この判断は事実に基づいている。 Kono handan wa jijitsu ni motozuite iru. This judgment is based on the facts.
54. 〜にもかかわらず — despite; in spite of; although
Meaning: "Despite ~; in spite of ~." Highlights contrast between expectation and reality — especially in formal or written contexts.
Formation: N / Plain form + にもかかわらず
Examples:
雨にもかかわらず、大勢の人が集まった。 Ame ni mo kakawarazu, oozei no hito ga atsumatta. Despite the rain, a large crowd gathered.
努力したにもかかわらず、失敗してしまった。 Doryoku shita ni mo kakawarazu, shippai shite shimatta. Despite my efforts, I ended up failing.
Compare: 〜のに (even though — casual, expresses disappointment) vs 〜にもかかわらず (formal, objective)
55. 〜ほかない / 〜ほかに〜ない — no choice but to; only option is
Meaning: "There is no choice but to ~; the only option is ~."
Formation: V[dictionary] + ほかない / ほかしかたない
Examples:
電車が止まったので、歩くほかない。 Densha ga tomatta no de, aruku hoka nai. Since the train stopped, there's no choice but to walk.
諦めるほかなかった。 Akirameru hoka nakatta. There was no choice but to give up.
56. 〜にしては — for; considering (it is ~)
Meaning: "For ~; considering that it's ~." Expresses a surprising contrast — the result doesn't match what you'd expect from the stated standard.
Formation: N / V[plain] + にしては
Examples:
初心者にしては、上手ですね。 Shoshinsha ni shite wa, jouzu desu ne. For a beginner, you're quite skilled.
10年住んでいるにしては、日本語が上手くない。 Juunen sunde iru ni shite wa, nihongo ga umaku nai. For someone who has lived here 10 years, their Japanese isn't that good.
57. 〜ものだ — it is the way things are; should naturally; used to do
Meaning: Multiple uses:
- Natural expectation or common sense: "It is natural that ~"
- Strong desire (〜ものだ after たい): intense wish
- Past habit (〜たものだ): "used to ~"
Formation: V[dictionary/plain] + ものだ
Examples: Natural expectation:
人間はいつか死ぬものだ。 Ningen wa itsuka shinu mono da. It is natural that humans die someday.
Past habit:
子供の頃、よくここで遊んだものだ。 Kodomo no koro, yoku koko de asonda mono da. I used to play here often when I was a child.
58. 〜ものの — although; even though; but
Meaning: "Although ~; even though ~." Used when the first clause sets an expectation that is not met. More formal than けど.
Formation: Plain form + ものの
Examples:
買ったものの、一度も使っていない。 Katta mono no, ichido mo tsukatte inai. Although I bought it, I haven't used it even once.
勉強したものの、試験は難しかった。 Benkyou shita mono no, shiken wa muzukashikatta. Although I studied, the exam was difficult.
59. 〜からには — since; given that; now that (obligation implied)
Meaning: "Since ~; given that ~." Implies that because the stated fact is true, one must follow through with something (obligation or expected behavior).
Formation: V[plain] / Na-adj + である + からには
Examples:
やると言ったからには、最後までやり抜く。 Yaru to itta kara ni wa, saigo made yarinu ku. Since I said I would do it, I will see it through to the end.
社会人になったからには、責任を持って行動すべきだ。 Shakaijin ni natta kara ni wa, sekinin wo motte koudou subeki da. Now that you've become a working adult, you should act responsibly.
60. 〜わりに — for; considering; despite expectation
Meaning: "For ~; in proportion to ~." The result doesn't match the expectation set by the standard.
Formation: V[plain] / N の / i-adj + わりに
Examples:
値段のわりに、品質がいい。 Nedan no wari ni, hinshitsu ga ii. For the price, the quality is good.
練習したわりに、上達しなかった。 Renshuu shita wari ni, joutatsu shinakatta. Despite having practiced, I didn't improve much.
Part 9: N3 Grammar Distinctions — Critical Comparisons
〜ので vs 〜から vs 〜ために (cause/reason)
| Pattern | Register | Nuance |
|---|---|---|
| 〜から | casual | Speaker's subjective reason; used in requests/commands |
| 〜ので | polite | Softer; seeks understanding; cannot follow requests/commands directly |
| 〜ために | formal/written | Neutral cause; common in written Japanese; can express purpose OR cause |
雨が降っているから、行かない。 ← casual, direct 雨が降っているので、行けません。 ← polite, seeking understanding 雨のために、試合が中止になった。 ← formal/written, neutral
〜たら vs 〜ば vs 〜と vs 〜なら (conditionals)
| Pattern | Nuance | Key Use |
|---|---|---|
| 〜たら | After X is done/happened | Discovery, completed action; natural sequence |
| 〜ば | Hypothetical condition | "If X were true"; often prescriptive |
| 〜と | Natural/automatic result | Facts, instructions, habitual patterns; NOT for requests/suggestions |
| 〜なら | Topic-condition | "If that's the case / talking about X"; often with advice |
雨が降ったら、中止にします。— If it rains (when it does), we'll cancel. 雨が降れば、中止にします。— If it rains (hypothetically), we'd cancel. 雨が降ると、道が濡れる。— When it rains, the road gets wet. (general fact) 旅行に行くなら、荷物を軽くしてね。— If you're going on a trip, keep your luggage light.
〜によって vs 〜について vs 〜において
| Pattern | Meaning | Type of relationship |
|---|---|---|
| 〜によって | by / due to / depending on | Cause, agent, variation |
| 〜について | about / regarding | Topic, subject matter |
| 〜において | in / at / in terms of (formal) | Location, domain, context |
この小説は有名な作家によって書かれた。— Written by a famous author. (agent) この小説について感想を述べてください。— Please share your impressions about this novel. (topic) 文学において、この作品は重要だ。— In literature, this work is significant. (domain)